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Gender-based violence in humanitarian crises
- Page updated onFebruary 26, 2025
It is estimated that one-third of women experience or will experience some form of sexual or gender-based violence in their lifetime. Moreover, in women of reproductive age, violence causes more death and disability than cancer, malaria, traffic accidents and wars combined. Moreover, for millions of girls and women, the risk of gender-based violence in humanitarian crises is even greater. In these contexts existing inequality intersects with the consequences of conflict, forced displacement and loss of social support and protection networks. New forms of sexual and gender-based violence may even emerge in these environments. It is therefore necessary to address gender-based violence in a multisectoral manner, both in terms of prevention at different levels and in terms of support for survivors.
Table of contents:
Why does gender-based violence occur in humanitarian crises?
Nature of gender violence
Gender-based violence is an umbrella term that encompasses any harmful act perpetrated against a person on the basis of socially ascribed gender differences between males and females. Harm may result in physical, sexual or mental suffering and may sometimes be related to acts of threat, coercion and arbitrary deprivation of liberty. It includes different types of sexual violence, domestic violence and other types of violence such as forced (and early) marriage or female genital mutilation. The perpetrator (usually a man) uses it to control, humiliate, and harm. It mainly affects women (including girls and adolescents), and is therefore often equated with the term "violence against women".
Gender-based violence is a violation of human rights, rooted in the gender inequality. It can occur in public spaces, but also in the privacy of the family or a couple's relationship. However, it is not a "family" or private problem. It is a scourge with individual, interpersonal, community and society-wide risk factors. In addition, it is a constraint to the socioeconomic development of families, communities and entire societies. It also constitutes a serious public health problem for millions of women and girls, most of whom do not disclose the suffering they endure or seek help, remaining invisible despite the pain it causes.
Causes and determinants of gender-based violence in humanitarian contexts
In a complex humanitarian crisis, inequality between men and women increases, while instability and violence increase for all. As a result, women are exposed to many more forms of sexual and gender-based violence.
On the one hand, in humanitarian contexts there is an increased risk of sexual assault and rape for women and girls. This can occur, for example, when they have to enter insecure areas to collect water, firewood or food. In addition, rape and sexual assault of women and girls as a weapon of war by soldiers and combatants of armed groups is common in conflicts. However, sexual and gender-based violence is not always external. On many occasions, it originates and develops within the couple or marriage and the family: domestic violence also increases in humanitarian contexts. This sometimes occurs as a consequence of the loss of jobs and social status of the men in the family. This is especially so in environments marked by traditional gender roles in which domestic violence is normalized.
On the other hand, in humanitarian crises, sexual violence is sometimes the result of transactional sex, sometimes as a means to survive in the midst of adversity. In these cases there is exploitation of the vulnerable person (sometimes a minor), forced to exchange sex for money, goods, protection or even food. In these cases, even when the persons are of legal age, there is no real consent, as they are forced to make this transaction for their survival or that of their families. The consequence of this sexual exploitation can be trafficking for sexual exploitation and slavery or forced and early marriage.
Types of gender-based violence in humanitarian crises
Some humanitarians classify gender-based violence into six basic types
Standardizing the types of gender-based violence is a complex problem. For years, each institution and humanitarian actor has used its own classification system and definitions, leading to numerous complications and inaccuracies in data management. For this reason, UNFPA, IRC and UNHCR developed a classification into 6 types of gender-based violence according to the specific act of violence and without overlap between them:
- Violation. It is the non-consensual penetration of the vagina, anus or mouth with the penis or another part of the body, or even with objects.
- Sexual Assault. Equivalent to all forms of non-consensual sexual contact without penetration. This includes attempted rape, kissing and unwanted touching. Female genital mutilation may also be included in this category.
- Physical aggression. This includes acts of physical violence that are not of a sexual nature, such as beating, choking, cutting or burning, among others.
- Forced marriage. It is, evidently, the marriage of a person against his or her will.
- Denial of resources, opportunities or services. This may include, for example, a woman whose intimate partner or family member takes away her earnings, or prevents her from being able to work, or use contraceptives. It may also include a girl who is prevented from accessing education or other social services.
- Psychological or emotional abuse. This type of violence includes threats of physical or sexual violence, humiliation, forced isolation, harassment, destruction of objects of sentimental value, etc.
There are other, non-core types of gender-based violence that also require analysis
There are other types of violence, which may fall under one or more of the above specific acts. They are determined by who perpetrates the violence and in what context, the age of the person assaulted, or the sustained repetition over time of the violence, for example. They include:
- Intimate partner violence. This type of violence is always perpetrated by a partner or ex-partner (usually a man). The aggressor usually has a pattern of abusive behavior to subdue, dominate and control another person (usually a woman), in a continuous cycle of violence that even goes so far as to blame the victim. It is very frequent. In fact, it is estimated that between 38% and 50% of all murders of women are committed by their partners or ex-partners. Moreover, it is deeply rooted in social and gender norms, according to which it is considered acceptable for a man to assault, threaten, intimidate, coerce, punish, humiliate, and even penetrate without consent (rape) his wife.
- Child sexual abuse. In this case, it can also fit with several specific acts of violence, committed against a child. This sometimes occurs in the context of domestic violence, in the form of vicarious violence. In this way, the abuser uses violence against the partner's children as a tactic of subjugation and control.
- Early marriage. In this case, the marriage involves a child. This sometimes occurs illegally, but is also covered by exceptions (in certain countries only parental consent is required) or by the religious and traditional norms of a community.
- Sexual exploitation and transactional sex.
- Sexual slavery.
- Harmful traditional practices. These practices are defined by social, cultural and religious values.
Preventing gender-based violence in humanitarian crises
The prevention of gender-based violence in humanitarian crises requires the commitment of all humanitarian actors, from their different sectors of intervention and areas of action. All can contribute to preventing and mitigating the suffering caused by gender-based violence. After all, gender-based violence in complex crises can be determined by fundamental aspects such as the organization of refugee camps, the involvement of girls and adolescents in the design of protection programs, the capacities of education personnel in schools, the design of cash transfer programs, access to health services with privacy and quality, the availability of economic empowerment programs for women, the availability of information on gender-based violence in spaces such as those aimed at breastfeeding protection, access to safe water, sanitation and menstrual hygiene products, etc.
In addition, they must adopt a protection approach, avoiding exposing women and girls to additional risks and harm resulting from irresponsible humanitarian action.
UN proposes seven strategies to prevent violence against women
- Relationship skills strengthened. It consists of improving people's skills for interpersonal communication, conflict management and shared decision making. It includes group workshops that promote egalitarian relationships, and couples therapy for coexistence without violence.
- Empowerment of women. It is intended to help women and girls develop their self-confidence, negotiation and assertiveness skills. In addition, women's autonomy is promoted and their economic dependence on others is reduced.
- Services ensured. It is intended to support survivors of violence and prevent further episodes, with social, legal, health and police services.
- Poverty reduced. Evidence shows that poverty increases the risk of gender-based violence, and decreases the capacities of social services and legal systems. Therefore, cash transfer programs, savings promotion, loans, entrepreneurship, income-generating activities and employability programs aimed at women can contribute to its prevention.
- Environments made safe. It seeks to make schools, workplaces and other public spaces safe and free of violence and fear for girls and women.
- Child and adolescent abuse prevented. This strategy, closely linked to child development approaches, aims to contribute to establishing positive relationships in the family, without corporal punishment.
- Transformed attitudes, beliefs, and norms. Challenging norms and beliefs about what it means to be a man or a woman, the roles or privileges they should have, or the way in which violence is perceived is key to decreasing its acceptability.
In complex conflicts and crises, additional considerations must also be taken into account
For years, the myth has been fed that sexual violence is inevitable in conflict; that it is practically collateral damage. However, this is neither true nor fair. That is why, since 2008, numerous UN Security Council resolutions have lowered the tolerance for gender-based violence in conflict-related humanitarian crises to zero. These resolutions also recognize that sexual violence in these contexts is used as a weapon of war, torture, terrorism and political repression. Sometimes it is even used as a tool for ethnic cleansing and social control.
Therefore, this violence must be made visible, understood as avoidable, and motivate proactive conflict-sensitive responses. This requires going beyond the strategies already put forward, and addressing others as well. This includes disarmament and arms control, reduction of military spending (and investment in social and support services), legal measures to prosecute and punish crimes and hold perpetrators accountable, or ensure the rights of people trafficked or in detention centers, among other priorities.
Multisectoral approach to gender-based violence in complex crises
There are minimum standards for response to gender-based violence in humanitarian crises
Among the many tools and reference documents for addressing gender-based violence in humanitarian crises, two are of particular importance. These set out the minimum elements that programs should have in humanitarian action and in the transition to post-emergency for support to survivors.
On the one hand, there are 16 minimum standards for prevention and response to gender-based violence in emergencies. These standards are divided into three groups. First, three basic standards determine a set of principles, and include those related to confidentiality, safety, non-discrimination, dignity and rights of women and girls, their participation and empowerment in actions, and the support and care of program staff. Second, ten other standards offer practical guidance for programs responding to gender-based violence in humanitarian crises, and include the multisectoral approach from health, social protection, security, justice or legal assistance. Third, there are three more standards aimed at guiding critical processes of these programs, such as coordination, data management, or monitoring and evaluation.
On the other hand, there is an essential services package that should serve as a reference for post-emergency transition and recovery. Some of these elements may be too ambitious for feasible implementation in the most immediate early recovery, but others can be phased in gradually.
Health services provide essential care for survivors of sexual violence
In many cases, different types of sexual and gender-based violence end in wounds and injuries. However, this is not all. Women and girl survivors of gender-based violence are at high risk of sexually transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS, as well as unwanted pregnancies. Therefore, health care for rape and sexual assault should include not only treatment of wounds and injuries, but also prevention and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, and emergency contraception.
It is also key to address the consequences of sexual and gender-based violence on the mental health of survivors. Many can benefit from psychological first aid and emotional and psychosocial support, as well as feeling understood by professionals they trust. In cases where more severe health problems such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety or suicidal ideation develop, these individuals may require more specialized care that should be available.
The health personnel must be adequately trained to be able to detect possible cases of gender-based violence and provide appropriate care. In addition, they should be able to connect them with other health services such as family planning, safe abortion care, prenatal care, psychosocial care, or menstrual health and hygiene. Health services may also need to provide referrals to social and protective services or legal assistance.
Social and protection services work for the safety of survivors
In humanitarian contexts there are few options for assaulted women to leave their aggressors: they lack resources and their movements are limited. In addition, many women in this situation may not even consider fleeing or seeking help, because they have normalized the violence or fear persecution and reprisals from their aggressor. For these reasons, the existence of safe spaces accessible only to women and girls can play a key role.
Social assistance generally begins with an assessment of the security situation, the circumstances that increase danger, and the risk of increased violence. In addition, strategies should be identified to enable you to get to safety in the most dangerous situations. The information can also help the survivor understand the dynamics of the violence and her own reactions, for example, in cases of impending early marriage. Sometimes in these cases the minor does not understand the risks and needs adequate information offered with sensitivity.
At times, survivors seek support for mediation with the aggressor, under the shelter of families, communities, and religious or traditional leaders. However, mediation often hides violence in the private sphere, under unjust social norms that grant control and power over the assaulted person to the abuser, who does not cease the violence. Therefore, case management must offer alternatives that advocate for the safety of the survivor. Response plans may consider resources such as safe houses, police security, relocation, commodity kits, economic assistance, livelihoods, and linkages to health, psychosocial and legal services. After initial steps, other longer-term protection services may be considered at a later stage.
Law enforcement and judicial services must protect the rights of the individual
Legal protection is essential for women survivors to be able to exercise their rights, and for perpetrators of violence to be brought to justice. However, justice systems in refugee contexts can be complex, with multiple sources of law, including those in countries of origin and asylum. The mechanisms for navigating these systems can also be complex, with local organizations offering legal assistance being of great assistance. These organizations must also be well connected to social protection and support actors and health services.
In this regard, humanitarian actors must also play a role that goes beyond providing legal support and physical access. They must work toensure that all judicial actors and their legal frameworks protect the rights of survivors. This may also require addressing harmful attitudes and practices of their professionals.
Some specific groups of people may require tailored assistance
In many societies, and especially among displaced and emergency-affected populations, people who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, transsexual, intersex or queer (LGTBIQ+) are at greater risk of violence. They often face discrimination or are assaulted because of their sexual orientation or gender identity. They may also have additional barriers to accessing services, due to feelings of guilt or fear of mistreatment, stigma or violence. In humanitarian contexts, moreover, given the scarcity of means, there may be an absolute lack of specialized services to address their needs. Therefore, when providing care to survivors of sexual and gender-based violence, it is necessary to do so with the right attitude. This requires listening skills, proper training, and empathetic attitudes free of prejudice. The safety of these people can be especially difficult to ensure if LGTBIQ+ identities are criminalized, or if public services are permeated by homo/bi/transphobia.
Heterosexual men and boys may also be at increased risk of sexual violence in humanitarian crises. They may be survivors of sexual assault, usually committed by other men, in contexts of ethnic violence and armed conflict. Survivors may be afraid to seek health care or social assistance for fear of discrimination and humiliation. Moreover, they may be at risk of additional violence if their sexual assault becomes known. They therefore also require protection and assistance.
People with disabilities also face specific problems, risks and barriers related to gender-based violence. Depending on the type of disability, when in a humanitarian crisis situation they may be particularly discriminated against or isolated, with insufficient social support, and exposed to abuses of all kinds. Sometimes they may also have a dependent relationship with the perpetrator of the violence, restricting their confidential access to social and health services.
Sexual and reproductive health
External links
- GBVIMS. Gender-Based Violence Information Management System.
- UN, 2022. Stop Rape Now. Framework for the prevention of conflict-related sexual violence.
- UNFPA, 2022. Addressing Gender-Based Violence Across Contexts: Gender-Based Violence Interagency Minimum Standards and the Essential Services Package for Women and Girls Subject to Violence.
- Women’s Refugee Commission, 2022. Evidence on the Use of Cash and Voucher Assistance to Prevent and Respond to Gender-Based Violence in Humanitarian Settings.
- WHO, 2021. Violence Against Women Prevalence Estimates, 2018.
- Stark, 2021. Gender-based violence against adolescent girls in humanitarian settings: a review of the evidence.
- WHO, 2020. Clinical management of rape and intimate partner violence survivors: developing protocols for use in humanitarian settings.
- UNFPA, 2019. The Inter-Agency Minimum Standards for Gender-Based Violence in Emergencies Programming.
- WHO, 2019. RESPECT women – Preventing violence against women.
- GBVIMS, 2017. Inter-agency Gender Based Violence Case Management Guidelines. Providing care and case management services to gender-based violence survivors in humanitarian settings.
- IASC, 2015. Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action: Reducing risk, promoting resilience and aiding recovery.
- UN Women, 2015. Essential Services Package for Women and Girls Subject to Violence.
- WHO, 2014. Health care for women subjected to intimate partner violence or sexual violence: a clinical handbook.
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